Where is phalaris arundinacea found

In contrast, P. The seeds are usually more than 2 mm long. Calamagrostis canadensis lacks the highly transparent ligule of reed canarygrass.

Reed canarygrass is a cool-season perennial grass that grows successfully in northern latitudes. It can be invasive in wet habitats and so is often a target for control. Since P. Reed canarygrass spreads within sites by creeping rhizomes and forms dense and impenetrable mats of vegetation. New sites are colonized by seeds. There is debate as to whether P. Early collections indicate canarygrass formed large stands along low elevation rivers and could be found in small, scattered stands in mountainous areas.

Modern Phalaris populations in this region may be a mixture of agronomic cultivars and native material. Reed canarygrass is widely regarded as non-native in more southern latitudes. The invasive character of some Phalaris populations may be the result of agronomic breeding for vigorous growth and drought tolerance. Jekyl and Mr. However, it can also overgrow irrigation ditches and small natural watercourses, alter soil hydrology, is poor forage for domestic stock when fresh, and invades native vegetation where it outcompetes desirable native species.

Almost any moist, fertile habitat is suitable for this species. Reed canarygrass invades and dominates wetland and riparian areas. Anthropogenic disturbance and alteration of water levels encourage reed canarygrass invasion. A combination of management strategies over several years will yield the best results. For low quality sites, discing or tilling may be effective, especially if used in combination with competitive crop planting.

Hand-pulling is recommended only for small populations. Covering the plants with mulch or plastic may work but is unreliable and labor intensive. Grazing may also be unreliable, and P. Prescribed fire and some herbicides are also effective. Biocontrol agents have not yet been identified. If a healthy native seedbank is not present, successful elimination of reed canarygrass may have to be followed by seeding with desirable species.

Otherwise, erosion or reinfestation by reed canarygrass or other weed species may occur. Reed canarygrass can form dense, persistent, monotypic stands in wetlands, moist meadows and riparian areas. These stands exclude and displace desirable native plants and animals. Areas invaded by reed canarygrass may be of little use to wildlife. Lesica found that an increase in the size of dense, monotypic patches of reed canarygrass coincided with a decrease in H.

Although this correlation does not directly demonstrate that reed canarygrass displaced H. Henderson [16] found an upland oak savanna in south central Wisconsin threatened by reed canarygrass invasion. In this habitat reed canarygrass spread very slowly, but formed dense, monotypic stands that were shade tolerant and highly competitive despite the relatively dry conditions.

Reed canarygrass is also considered a pest because it promotes silt deposition and the consequent constriction of waterways and irrigation canals. It is generally thought that invasive populations of reed canarygrass are descendants of non-native cultivars or ecotypes [1] [17] or the vigorous result of crosses between cultivated varieties and native strains.

Once the desirable strain was identified the investigators distributed seeds to local farmers. Reed canarygrass has a long agronomic history and was cultivated for forage as early as in Sweden. There are now at least eleven reed canarygrass cultivars. Reed canarygrass may be more phenotypically plastic as a result of human intervention. Natural populations of reed canarygrass are primarily found in marshes and other wetland habitats, but farmers prefer strains that tolerate drought or upland conditions.

Agronomic trials comparing yields of reed canarygrass to drought tolerant species demonstrate that canarygrass yields more hay than smooth brome, timothy, tall meadow oat, red top, meadow fescue and orchard grass under dry conditions. Reed canarygrass is the only member of the genus Phalaris that is circumboreal, and it may be the precursor to all New World taxa of the genus.

Reed canarygrass is a notorious global weed. According to Holm et al. Merigliano and Lesica [12] found that early botanical collections of reed canarygrass from the inland Pacific Northwest predated settlement of the area by people of European ancestry. These collections indicate canarygrass formed large stands along low elevation rivers and could be found in scattered small stands in mountainous areas. Modern populations of canarygrass in this region may be a mixture of agronomic cultivars and native material.

The same may be true throughout the northern US and southern Canada. Several TNC Stewards reported that riparian and streamside corridors are at the greatest risk of being invaded and dominated by reed canarygrass Randall, unpublished but any moist, fertile habitat provides good conditions for this species. Streambanks, lake-shores [4] , and shore swales [3] also support the species. Munz [27] states that all moist places in California below m ft may be suitable for reed canarygrass, but it can also thrive on dry soils.

Reed canarygrass invasion is promoted by disturbances such as ditching of wetlands, stream channelization, deforestation of swamp forests, sedimentation, overgrazing and intentional planting. Reed canarygrass shoots emerge from rhizomes or seeds and grow vertically through the soil surface during the first weeks of spring.

Reed canarygrass has two periods of growth, one prior to seed maturation and one after. After the second growth period in mid to late summer, culms collapse and form dense, impenetrable mounds. Four to six leaf primordia are present in each rhizomatous axillary bud at the beginning of winter. Inflorescences do not overwinter. No reed canarygrass seed germinated after being submerged in water for 24 months [ 45 ].

Reed canarygrass' soil seed bank densities may be high. In Wisconsin, seed densities were estimated in 5 wetlands that were dominated by either sedge and reedgrass meadow or cattail.

It is unclear how reed canarygrass' aboveground cover influences seed bank densities. Germination: Reported germination rates in reed canarygrass are variable [ 44 , 92 , , , , , ]. Poor curing techniques [ 90 ] or genetic variation [ ] may contribute to this variability.

Germination rates of reed canarygrass are consistently higher for seed germinated in light than in dark [ 44 , 92 , , , , ], and several studies indicate that light availability may influence reed canarygrass germination [ , , ]. In the laboratory, little or no reed canarygrass seed germinated when buried at soil depths of 0. In an experimental wetland, reed canarygrass germination increased on sites where more light penetrated to the soil [ ].

Temperature and moisture may influence germination of reed canarygrass seed. A few publications have indicated that exposure to alternating temperatures, rather than constant temperatures, may stimulate reed canarygrass germination [ 44 , , ]. Reed canarygrass seed may germinate better in saturated soils than in dry or flooded soils [ 22 , ].

Bonnilla-Warford and Zedler [ 22 ] speculated that reed canarygrass seed failed to germinate in pots placed in a controlled environment because the soil was dry. Reed canarygrass' ability to germinate may be influenced by oxygen availability in the soil [ ].

In the greenhouse, reed canarygrass has germinated immediately after ripening [ 92 , , ], reviews by [ 7 ] , but it is unclear if this commonly occurs in the wild. Kilbride and Paveglio [ ] implied that reed canarygrass seed germinates immediately after ripening in the wild, but no evidence was provided.

In the greenhouse, fresh reed canarygrass seed germinated within 9 days [ 92 ]. Reed canarygrass seed germination rates may improve after undergoing a period of dormancy, at least through the winter. Both dry storage and cold-stratification have enhanced germination in reed canarygrass to a limited extent [ , ]. Vose [ ] described germination for various strains of reed canarygrass to be "poor and irregular" and attributed it to seed dormancy.

In the laboratory, scarification may break reed canarygrass seed dormancy and increase germination; however, freshly scarified seed sown in soil may not germinate after 2 or 3 days [ ]. Seedling establishment and plant growth: Seedling establishment may be most common on moist open sites review by [ 76 ] such as mud flats [ ], seasonal floodplains [ ], and reservoir shores [ ].

Reed canarygrass seedlings generally emerge within 8 to 10 days from seed planted in spring [ 45 , 63 ]. Under cultivation, spring seedlings grow 10 to 20 inches cm tall [ ] and may spread 6 to 10 inches cm in diameter within the first year [ ]. Once established, reed canarygrass seedlings undergo rapid development [ 46 , , ], review by [ 7 , ] from rhizomes [ 46 ], review by [ ] and tillers [ 46 ], provided suitable substrate and moisture are available [ , ], review by [ 76 ].

In an experimental field, tillering began within 1 month after seedlings emerged, and average tiller production increased from 0. Under cultivation, different strains of reed canarygrass vary greatly in vigor of growth [ ]. Wild populations likely share the same variability because they are thought to be an assemblage of introduced strains see Native Status in North America.

Results from several studies suggests that reed canarygrass can grow rapidly once it has established [ 62 , , , ]. One review indicated that reed canarygrass grows most rapidly during the cool spring months [ ].

In a Wisconsin marsh, reed canarygrass grew throughout the growing season but its maximum growth occurred from 26 April to 10 June [ ]. Reed canarygrass shoots emerging in spring in a Missouri floodplain generally reach a foot high in April and up to 3.

Reed canarygrass may reach 4 to 5 feet m tall within 2 to 4 years [ , ] and may grow more rapidly on open than shaded sites see Shade tolerance. Under experimental conditions, increases in nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations typically have a positive influence on reed canarygrass biomass [ 20 , 67 , , , , , ] and tiller production [ , ] and may have similar influences in wetlands [ ]. Plant survival rates, however, may not improve with increased nutrients [ 67 ].

Several studies have documented increases in reed canarygrass' aboveground growth with increased flood duration [ , , ], and one study found that submerged reed canarygrass maintains its photosynthetic capabilities for at least short periods of flooding [ ].

Conversely, reed canarygrass growth may be adversely impacted by extended periods of flooding [ 26 , 47 ] or anoxia [ 13 ]. One study from western Europe indicated that reed canarygrass' growth may be adversely impacted by extended periods of drought [ ].

Vegetative regeneration: Within the first year of growth, reed canarygrass produces rhizomes and begins tillering [ 62 , ]. In the greenhouse, reed canarygrass seedlings formed rhizomes before the plants were 2 months old and produced tillers soon after [ ].

Mature reed canarygrass plants spread rapidly by rhizomes Klimesova and Cizkova cited in [ ]. In the greenhouse, transplanted rhizomes branched up to 7 times in one year [ 62 ]. In Europe, 3 to 5 generations of tillers were produced by 1 reed canarygrass plant in 1 year. Occasionally culms became inclined, and if the topsoil was moist, they rooted at the nodes and produced new upright stems [ ].

Flooding may reduce rhizome growth [ , ] and tiller production [ ], review by [ ] , particularly if it occurs in the summer [ ]. Shade may also have an adverse affect on rhizome survival [ ]. Reed canarygrass rhizome fragments sprout in controlled environments [ 22 , ] and likely do so in the wild. Reed canarygrass abundance in a monotypic stand was reduced 1 year after soil scarification, but plants continued to sprout from rhizome fragments [ ].

Reed canarygrass regrows following cutting, mowing, or other types of damage [ 82 , , , , ], review by [ ] probably from its rhizomes and possibly from its root crown. Reed canarygrass is considered winter-hardy [ ], although different strains may be less adapted to cold than others. European strains may survive colder temperatures than some North American strains [ ]. A few localized examples illustrate that reed canarygrass tolerates a wide range of temperature and precipitation regimes.

In North America, reed canarygrass occurs in areas where average annual low temperatures range from 9. Reported average annual precipitation on sites where reed canarygrass occurs range from 18 inches mm [ ] to 80 inches 2, mm [ 41 , , , , , ].

In North America, reed canarygrass occurs in locations where the majority of rainfall occurs seasonally [ 41 , 69 , , , ] but the time of the year is variable. Elevation: Information pertaining to reed canarygrass' North American elevational range comes from local floras or is anecdotal. Reed canarygrass tends to occur at low to middle elevations but occasionally occurs at high elevations. The following table may not reflect reed canarygrass' complete elevational range in North America.

Substrate and water chemistry: In North America, reed canarygrass occurs on a variety of soil textures from clay to sand [ 34 , 64 , 94 , 97 , , , ]. In wetlands of the northcentral United States and the Great Lakes area, reed canarygrass commonly occurs in muck [ 23 , 51 , 95 , , ] and peat [ 11 , 23 , 51 , 73 , , , ] deposits of varying mineral and organic content.

A few reports indicate that reed canarygrass occurs in mineral soils [ 34 , ] and muck [ , ] in the Northeast. Riparian plant community publications from Idaho [ 6 ] and Montana [ 97 ] and studies from Wisconsin [ ] and Ohio [ ] indicate that reed canarygrass tolerates pH ranging from 6. In Tennessee, reed canarygrass was planted and survived on a site with soil pH as low as 5 [ 69 ]. In Alberta, Canada, reed canarygrass occurred in oxbow lakes with water pH ranging from 8.

Reed canarygrass may tolerate mildly saline water [ ] but is intolerant of hypersaline conditions [ ]. Moisture: Reed canarygrass prefers sites with moist to saturated soils [ 97 , , , , , , , , , , ]. Reed canarygrass tolerates flooding [ 32 , , , , , , ] and may prefer sites that experience periodic flooding [ 41 , 51 , , , , , , , ], but for how long is unclear.

Reports from northwestern states indicate that reed canarygrass may survive flooding lasting from weeks [ ] to months [ ], and up to 1 year if it is not totally submerged review by [ ]. In Canada, reed canarygrass seedlings survived periods of flooding lasting from 35 to 49 days [ ]. In South Dakota, planted reed canarygrass seedlings inundated for up to 9 weeks survived and spread.

Their cover was temporarily reduced when inundation lasted for more than 6 weeks, but they recovered before the next flood season [ ]. In California, reed canarygrass established after being seeded in December but failed to survive 61 days of flooding on an experimental site [ ]. In New Mexico, reed canarygrass tolerates anaerobic conditions [ ]. Flooding has been recommended for reed canarygrass control in some situations, which suggests that reed canarygrass may not tolerate prolonged flooding in all circumstances.

Several publications suggest that reed canarygrass is drought tolerant [ 76 , , , , ], while others suggest it has little drought tolerance [ ].

A publication from the Nature Conservancy indicated that in the Pacific Northwest, reed canarygrass tolerates "prolonged" periods of drought [ ].

Conversely, Merigliano [ ] considered reed canarygrass to have a "very low" tolerance to drought in riparian areas along the South Fork Snake River in Idaho. One laboratory study [ ] indicated that reed canarygrass growth may be adversely impacted by drought see Seedling establishment and plant growth. Statements made regarding reed canarygrass' tolerance to drought often come from agronomic sources [ , , ] and are sometimes made in reference to other cultivated or upland grasses [ 76 , , ], so they are difficult to apply to wildland conditions.

Reed canarygrass drought tolerance may differ among its numerous strains and cultivars [ ]. General habitat: In North America, reed canarygrass occurs in marshes, wet meadows and prairies, lake shores, stream banks [ 9 , 15 , 87 , , , , , , , , ], and river islands [ 15 , , ].

Reed canarygrass also occurs in fens and bogs, particularly in the Rocky Mountains [ ] and Great Lakes states [ 51 , , ]. In the Great Plains, it is common in prairie potholes, particularly those located in fallow and hayed fields [ ]. Along the east coast it occurs in freshwater tidal marshes [ 34 , 67 , , ]. Throughout its North American range, reed canarygrass occurs in riparian forests [ 53 , 54 , 66 , ], and in the northwestern and Great Lakes states, reed canarygrass may invade upland sites such as oak savannas [ 6 , , , ] or upslope drainage seepages [ 57 ].

In Ohio, it occurred in a forested bog [ ]. Reed canarygrass is common on anthropogenically altered sites such as ditches [ 87 , , ], agricultural fields that are under cultivation or abandoned [ 40 , , , ], sites near water impoundment structures e.

It also establishes on sites where natural disturbance has occurred, such as flooding and wildfire see Potential successional stages. Although disturbance may facilitate reed canarygrass establishment, it is not a requirement [ 11 , , , , ].

In one study from Manitoba, Canada, reed canarygrass occurrence was negatively associated with disturbance and positively associated with plant diversity [ ].

Sites where reed canarygrass is most common such as wetlands, floodplains, and abandoned farm fields see Habitat Types and Plant Communities may not have clear patterns of succession. Many natural and anthropogenic factors influence floodplain succession, including flooding, wildfire, windthrow, timber harvest, flow alteration, ungulate browsing, invasion by nonnatives, and disease review by [ 93 ] ; this complexity makes it difficult to define successional stages or predict successional changes in these ecosystems.

Because water level typically fluctuates in wetlands [ , ], vegetation changes in wetlands are often cyclic [ , , ]; neither "true" primary nor typical secondary succession is likely to occur in wetlands review by [ ]. Additionally, some evidence suggests that dense, tall stands of reed canarygrass may themselves influence successional pathways , further complicating its successional role.

Shade tolerance: Reed canarygrass prefers full sunlight [ ], reviews by [ , ] and, while it grows in shade [ 66 , ], reviews by [ , ] , its abundance may decrease with decreased light. Based on reed canarygrass' frequency in floodplains of the Mississippi and Wisconsin rivers, Menges and Waller [ ] concluded that reed canarygrass had a preference for well-lit sites. In the greenhouse, reed canarygrass' aboveground biomass was reduced in shade when compared to reed canarygrass grown without shade.

Reed canarygrass' rhizomes and tillers may allow it to spread and persist in heavily shaded areas. Germination and seedling establishment in reed canarygrass improve with increased light levels; however, reed canarygrass seedlings may establish in shade.

In the greenhouse, reed canarygrass seedling densities did not differ in variable light levels i. Leck [ ] suggested that seedlings could establish in shaded habitats during the summer or fall under canopy gaps created when leaf cover declines. Potential successional stages: Available evidence indicates that reed canarygrass establishes, persists and may spread in plant communities of various successional stages, from early [ 18 , 66 , 71 , 79 , , , , , ] to late succession [ 66 , 93 , ].

It occasionally occurs as a transient species in early succession [ ] but typically persists longer [ 66 , 71 , , ]. Reed canarygrass establishes on anthropogenically disturbed sites see General habitat and on sites in early stages of secondary succession where the vegetation cover has been altered or removed by natural disturbance.

Reed canarygrass establishes in recently abandoned farmlands in the early stages of succession [ 18 , 79 ], review by [ ]. It also establishes in floodplains where bottomland vegetation has been scoured by flooding [ 71 ], in recently constructed or restored wetlands [ , ], on lakeshores undergoing drawdown [ ], on newly created gravel bars [ 15 , ], and shortly after fire see Plant response to fire.

In some instances reed canarygrass may be transient and disappear after early succession. In Wisconsin, Kopatek [ ] considered reed canarygrass a transient species. In northwestern Montana, a trace amount 0. Typically, reed canarygrass persists and spreads in mid- to late succession [ 66 , 71 , , ]. In Norway, reed canarygrass was initially uncommon on a lakeshore undergoing permanent drawdown; however, it became increasingly dominant over a year period [ ].

Reed canarygrass germinates better in light than shade, and reports of its establishment in later succession are limited to a field study from Great Britain: reed canarygrass established in a previously cultivated wet grassland undergoing secondary succession on a site where it had not previously occurred for 35 years [ 25 ].

Several studies indicate that reed canarygrass reaches its greatest abundance in early to mid-succession and declines thereafter [ 66 , 71 , , ].

This may be especially true on sites where reed canarygrass is not the dominant vegetation [ 71 , ] or where it becomes shaded [ 66 ]. In Colorado, reed canarygrass established in a riparian area after a major flood event. Reed canarygrass occurred in an oxbow that had been previously disturbed by human activities.

In some instances, reed canarygrass' abundance may remain relatively stable for long periods, especially in the absence of disturbance. In Wisconsin, reed canarygrass occasionally occurred 6. Over time, reed canarygrass may displace other wetland plants and eventually dominate the vegetation.

In Oregon, reed canarygrass may eventually displace a Columbian sedge community type and form near-monotypic stands [ ]. On a lakeshore in Norway undergoing permanent drawdown, reed canarygrass became increasingly dominant, establishing dense populations in areas previously dominated by spikerush Equisetum spp. Dense stands of reed canarygrass may influence succession by preventing the establishment of woody species [ 48 , 65 , , ]. For example, along the Allegheny River in Pennsylvania, reed canarygrass dominated the vegetation and precluded forest development on sites that had been logged about 66 to years earlier [ 48 ].

Reed canarygrass rhizomes likely survive most low- to moderate-severity fires but may be killed by high-severity fires in some plant communities. Studies and observations indicate that reed canarygrass sprouts after fire see Fire adaptations and Plant response to fire , suggesting that its rhizomes likely survive fire if they are buried deep enough in the soil see Botanical description to be protected from lethal heating [ 39 ], reviews by [ , ].

Reed canarygrass sometimes occurs in wetlands with deep organic soils see Habitat types and plant communities. When these sites are drained or experience severe drought, severe ground fires, such as those described by Curtis [ 51 ] in sedge meadows in Wisconsin, may smolder for long durations and consume organic surface layers, burning down to the underlying mineral soil or parent material [ 51 , 73 , 74 , ]. Reed canarygrass rhizomes occurring in organic layers would be killed in these circumstances.

Studies in which reed canarygrass seedlings were observed after fire [ 1 , 69 ] indicate that reed canarygrass seeds in the soil seed bank survive fire and that germination may be stimulateded by fire or by postfire conditions. Less than 1 month after early spring controlled burns in monotypic stands of reed canarygrass in a wetland in northeastern Tennessee, reed canarygrass seedlings were growing from gaps in the litter on burned plots [ 69 ].

In Minnesota wet meadows undergoing restoration treatments, reed canarygrass' seeds survived and germinated "immediately" after spring prescribed fires that were described as being comparable to a "high-intensity grassland fire" [ 1 ]. No additional information was available as of regarding how fire intensity and severity influence reed canarygrass seed survival. Few studies describe fire characteristics or indicate whether postfire establishment of reed canarygrass is from sprouting or seed germination.

Reed canarygrass rhizomes likely survive fire under most conditions, with the exception of those exposed to severe ground fires that may occur in organic soils see Immediate fire effect on plant. In an Oregon wetland, reed canarygrass tiller density increased within 2 years following prescribed fire; however, no information was given on fire frequency, severity, or substrate characteristics associated with this study [ ].

Studies from Minnesota [ 1 ] and Tennessee [ 69 ] indicate that reed canarygrass establishes from residual seed banks after fire. It may also establish from off-site seed sources see Seed dispersal. Researchers [ 1 , ] have speculated that fire creates optimal germination conditions for reed canarygrass by improving light availability. At the time of this writing , no information was available on characteristics that enable reed canarygrass seed to survive fire.

Plant response to fire: Established reed canarygrass typically persists [ 1 , 69 , , ] and may increase in abundance [ 1 , , , ] after fire, and fire may stimulate reed canarygrass seed germination [ 1 , 69 ].

None of the literature reviewed described postfire mortality of established reed canarygrass. When fire is used as part of an integrated management plan, reed canarygrass' response to fire may be influenced by the timing and sequence of other treatments see Use of prescribed fire as a control agent. Postfire persistence and spread : On sites where reed canarygrass is well established, it may persist and grow rapidly after fire [ 1 , 69 , , ], and in some instances it may spread [ ].

In a monotypic stand of reed canarygrass on a site that was historically sedge meadow and wet prairie in northeastern Illinois, reed canarygrass persisted after a low-severity prescribed fire in early March and was 6 to 12 inches cm tall by early May [ ]. In a "large" stand of reed canarygrass in Oregon, tiller production was greater in plots after they were burned than before [ ].

Where reed canarygrass was invading an oak savanna in Wisconsin, early spring fire appears to have "accelerated its spread" [ ]; however, late spring burning had negative impacts on reed canarygrass. Reed canarygrass may not always persist after fire. In a 3 year study, a small patch 0. No information was provided regarding the abundance of reed canarygrass either before the fire or in unburned areas.

Beaked sedge dominated both the burned and unburned areas in the 3 years after the fire [ ]. Reed canarygrass' rapid postfire establishment from the soil seed bank [ 1 , 69 ] suggests that postfire conditions may favor its germination.

In a reed canarygrass field in Tennessee where seasonal flooding had recently been restored, reed canarygrass seedlings established within 1 month after prescribed fire [ 69 ]. Researchers attributed the difference to germination of reed canarygrass seeds immediately after fire [ 1 ], although preburn seed densities were not reported for either burned or unburned plots. Influence of fire frequency on plant response to fire: As of this writing , little information is available on the effects of fire frequency on reed canarygrass.

Vegetation management publications recommend late spring or late fall prescribed fire repeated annually for 5 to 6 years to reduce reed canarygrass abundance [ , , ] but provide no examples to support this recommendation. Reed canarygrass may persist after repeated fires, especially where it is a dominant or codominant species.

Nearly monotypic stands of reed canarygrass persisted after 3 consecutive years of spring prescribed fires in an eastern Tennessee wetland [ 69 ]. In Wisconsin, reed canarygrass was a codominant species in a wet-mesic prairie that had been burned for 30 years on at least a biennial basis.

While it is unclear when reed canarygrass established on the site, its relative dominance in the plant community suggests its invasion was not recent [ 42 ]. Frequent prescribed fires may be effective for controlling reed canarygrass in plant communities where desired, fire-adapted species dominate the plant community or seed bank reviews by [ , ] see Use of prescribed fire as a control agent.

Influence of fire season on plant response to fire : The effects of fire season on reed canarygrass vary and probably depend on interactions with other variables such as plant community associates, fire frequency, and fire timing relative to plant phenology. Howe [ , , ] has conducted the only studies to date that investigate differential effects of fire season without other, confounding treatments.

This research indicates reed canarygrass may be reduced by spring burning and increased by summer burning, but summer burning is unlikely to favor reed canarygrass to the point where it becomes dominant in areas previously dominated by warm-season grasses.

Details of Howe's studies are described in the research project summary, Herbaceous responses to seasonal burning in experimental tallgrass prairie plots. The first of Howe's studies [ , ] investigated the seasonal effects of fire in agricultural fields where vegetation was removed and tallgrass prairie species planted. Reed canarygrass was not one of the species planted but, within 3 years, was among the 12 most common species on the site.

In the 4th year, one-third of the plots were burned in spring, one-third were burned in summer, and the remaining one-third were left unburned. The following year, reed canarygrass cover and frequency did not differ significantly among treatments [ ]. Three years later, the same experimental plots were burned in the same seasons. The following year, mean reed canarygrass cover in summer-burned plots The summer after the second burn, warm-season plants dominated all plots regardless of treatments but were less abundant in plots burned in the summer than those burned in the spring or not burned at all.

In contrast, cool-season plants, including reed canarygrass, were reduced in spring-burned and unburned plots but increased in summer-burned plots, although they did not become dominant. A second study in the same area [ ] described abundance of red canarygrass relative to that of other cool-season grasses and 3 warm-season grasses. Experimental plots were cleared of previous vegetation, then seeded with reed canarygrass and 2 other cool-season grasses slender wheatgrass Elymus trachycaulus and Virginia wildrye Elymus virginicus ; and 3 warm-season grasses big bluestem Andropogon gerardii , switchgrass Panicum virgatum and prairie dropseed Sporobolus heterolepis.

Six plots were burned in May and again in May ; 6 were burned in August and again in August ; and 6 plots were left unburned. After the second burns, 2 warm-season species, big bluestem and switchgrass, increased in dominance in spring-burned plots while reed canarygrass, a cool-season species, decreased. In summer-burned plots, reed canarygrass was expected to increase substantially.

Instead it codominated with the other 2 cool-season grasses Virginia rye and Kentucky bluegrass and the warm-season grasses [ ]. In an oak savanna in Wisconsin, an early April prescribed fire did not control reed canarygrass and may have accelerated its spread.

Late spring burning mid-to-late May weakened reed canarygrass and prevented it from producing seed but was also detrimental to some of the desired native plant species [ ]. Influence of flooding on plant response to fire: Effects of fire on reed canarygrass may be influenced by flooding. In northern California, reed canarygrass was a subdominant species in wetlands that were dominated by quackgrass Elymus repens or saltgrass Distichlis spicata. Wetlands were burned in December and again in November to study the effects of prescribed fire on plant species diversity, plant community composition and plant community use by wild geese.

Fire had little effect on reed canarygrass relative abundance in the saltgrass community. In the quackgrass community, reed canarygrass relative abundance increased after both fires; however, it was less abundant in burned blocks than expected in the year when spring flooding was "extensive".

The authors recommended further study of the interactive effects of burning and flooding on reed canarygrass abundance [ ]. Wetland fires may be difficult to conduct in monotypic stands of reed canarygrass because it remains green into the fall reviews by [ , ]. High water levels may also limit burning in wetlands [ 97 ], review by [ ].

Wade and others [ ] described fuel characteristics for coastal marshes in the eastern United States although they do not address reed canarygrass specifically. In general, these ecosystems support abundant fine fuels and large quantities of herbaceous vegetation that is often "highly" flammable [ ].

As mature reed canarygrass plants senesce late in the season, litter accumulates and forms thick, impenetrable mats [ , ]. Fire may be used to reduce this litter [ 69 , ], review by [ ] , even when standing reed canarygrass is green. Fire behavior was more variable on August-burned plots in this sutdy than on May-burned plots. The year after a single burn, productivity did not differ significantly between May-burned, August-burned, and unburned plots.

In a dense stand of reed canarygrass in Minnesota, researchers did not get a "good burn" during a June prescribed fire, which they attributed to the high moisture content of the litter [ ].

Reed canarygrass may produce wind-borne embers when stands are burned Eggers personal communication cited in [ ]. Reed canarygrass poses threat to oak savanna restoration and maintenance Wisconsin.

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